Opioids are first-line therapy for alleviating dyspnea in patients at EOL. The administration of opioids has been shown in systematic reviews to provide effective management of dyspnea.14,15 Practice guidelines by leading expert groups advocate for the use of opioids in the management of dyspnea for patients with advanced malignant and noncancer diseases.10,16 Fear of causing unintended respiratory sedation with opioids limits the prescription of opioids for dyspnea. However, studies have not found a change in mortality with the use of opioids appropriately titrated to control dyspnea.17
Studies examining the role of benzodiazepines in dyspnea management are conflicting. Anecdotal clinical evidence in actively dying patients supports treating dyspnea with benzodiazepines in conjunction with opioid therapy. Benzodiazepines are most beneficial when there is an anxiety-related component to the dyspnea.
Many patients with advanced disease and evidence of airflow obstruction will benefit from nebulized bronchodilator therapy for dyspnea. Patients with dyspnea from fluid overload (i.e. end-stage congestive heart failure or renal disease) might benefit from systemic diuretics. An increasing number of trials are under way to evaluate the efficacy of nebulized furosemide in the symptomatic management of dyspnea.
Back to the Case
The patient’s clinical course decompensates, and he begins to report worsening dyspnea in addition to his underlying pain. He becomes increasingly anxious about what this new symptom means. In addition to having a discussion about disease progression and prognosis, you increase his PCA basal dose to morphine 4 mg/hour to help him with this new symptom. You also add low-dose lorazepam 0.5 mg IV q8 hours as an adjunct agent for his dyspnea. The patient reports improvement of his symptom burden.
Review of the Data: Secretions
Physiological changes occur as a patient enters the active phase of dying. Two such changes are the loss of the ability to swallow and a reduced cough reflex. These changes culminate in an inability to clear secretions, which pool in the oropharynx and the airways. As the patient breathes, air moves over the pooled secretions and produces a gurgling sound that is referred to as the “death rattle.” The onset of this clinical marker has been shown to have significant prognostic significance for predicting imminent death within a period of hours to days. Proposed treatments for the symptom are listed below.
Nonpharmacological Management
Nonpharmacological options include repositioning the patient in a manner that facilitates postural draining.18 Careful and gentle oral suctioning might help reduce secretions if they are salivary in origin. This will not help to clear deeper bronchial secretions. Suctioning of deeper secretions often causes more burden than benefit, as this can cause repeated trauma and possible bleeding.
Family and caregivers at the bedside can find the “death rattle” quite disturbing and often fear that their loved one is “drowning.” Education and counseling that this is not the case, and that the development of secretions is a natural part of the dying process, can help alleviate this concern. Explaining that pharmacological agents can be titrated to decrease secretions is also reassuring to caregivers.
Pharmacological Management
Pharmacological options for secretion management include utilizing anticholinergic medications to prevent the formation of further secretions. These medications are standard of care for managing the death rattle and have been found to be most efficacious if started earlier in the actively dying phase.19,20 Anticholinergic medications include glycopyrrolate (0.2 mg IV q8 hours), atropine sulfate ophthalmological drops (1% solution, 1-2 drops SL q6 hours), hyoscyamine (0.125 mg one to four times a day), and scopolamine (1.5 mg patch q72 hours). These medications all have possible side effects typical of anticholinergic agents, including delirium, constipation, blurred vision, and urinary retention.